After over five decades of establishing plantations in Chitgar Forest Park in Tehran, no study has yet been carried out on the soil seed bank in this region. This study aimed to investigate the composition of above-ground vegetation and soil seed bank. Therefore, 30 releves were established with 450m2 area each. For sampling soil seed bank within each releve, two samples were randomly collected by hammering a 400 cm2 into the soil to a depth of 5-10. Following this, the soil seed bank was estimated using the seedling emergence method. All in all there were 22 families and 62 species in above-ground vegetation and 29 species from 13 families were identified in the seed bank. All species in the soil seed bank were present in the above-ground vegetation. The results also showed that the above-ground vegetation included a higher species richness than the soil seed bank. High similarity of the soil seed bank and above-ground vegetation showed that the soil seed bank has the potential for reclamation of above-ground vegetation, but the lack of tree species in the soil seed bank hampers the practicability of the reForestation with an emphasis on seed germination of the soil seed bank.Furthermore, because of the structure and the type of the previous above-ground vegetation across the test site, the natural tendency of the area is towards the non-Forest species.

We assessed the size and composition of the soil seed bank and above-ground vegetation in 52 relevés representing a range of habitats within an old- growth, temperate deciduous Forest at Hyrcanian region, northern Iran. We identified 63 taxa in the seed bank, with an average density of 4202 seeds/spores per m2 by seedling emergence method. Hypericum androsaemum, Cardamine impatiens, and Rubus hyrcanus, with Athyrium flix- femina and Pteris cretica as two ferns, were the most abundant species in the seed bank and spore bank that made up to 92 % of the seeds/spores recorded in the soil seed bank. Totally, 107 species were recorded in the vegetation and soil seed bank of the study site, of which 33 % were common in both seed bank and vegetation and 26 % and 41 % were found only in the seed bank or in the vegetation, respectively. The dominant tree species with many woody understory species found in the above- ground vegetation were absent from the persistent soil seed bank. Jaccard’s similarity coefficient revealed that the correspondence between the species in the vegetation and the same species in the seed bank were consistently low (average of 24.3%) based on presence/absence data. Yates- corrected X2 test showed that sites present significant differences (P<0.001) in seed bank and vegetation species composition. DCA ordination of the above-ground vegetation and soil seed bank flora displays a clear pattern, with two distinct groups on the basis of the above-ground vegetation and soil seed bank floristic data. Our results explain the low similarity between soil seed bank and vegetation of the Darkola oriental beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) Forest only to a limited extent, but confirm that most of the species of the above-ground vegetation do not depend on the persistent soil seed bank. Therefore, it may be concluded that the persistent soil seed bank is not capable of restoring the extant vegetation of the studied site.

The duration of vegetation restoration in the skid trails after logging operations is crucial and fundamental for preserving Forests. The purpose of this research is to evaluate the long-term vegetation restoration of the skid trails in Kheyrud Forest after logging operations. Therefore, 54 sample plots (1×1 m) were randomly positioned. This included 27 plots on the skid trails with ages of 5, 10, and 15 years at three traffic intensities (low, medium, and high). Additionally, 27 sample plots served as controls with a distance of 10 m from the skid trails parallel to these trails. All the plants in the plots were identified, their abundance was counted, and their species and families were identified. The results of the current research showed that among the three investigated treatments, traffic intensity alone had a significant effect on the recovery of vegetation along the skid trails. However, the age after harvesting and the interaction of traffic intensity and age after harvesting did not have a significant effect. The results also showed that traffic intensity significantly affected the abundance of species. Furthermore, in all three factors (traffic intensity, age after harvesting, and the interaction of traffic intensity × age after harvesting), tree species were more affected by soil changes compared to herbaceous species. Therefore, traffic intensity can significantly affect the variety of species and number of plants in the skid trails, with a greater effect on tree species than herbaceous species.

The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between biodiversity and the richness of woody and ground vegetation species, soil physicochemical and physiographic characteristics of the Zagros Forests. This study was conducted at Arghavan reservoir in the North of Ilam Province in Iran. For this study, plots with a systematic distribution across the northern (n=24), southern (n=20) and western (n=13) aspects were selected and vegetation, soil and physiographic data were measured. Results showed that, in the southern aspect, ground vegetation diversity had a negative relationship with clay and sand while it had positive correlation with silt. In the northern aspect, ground vegetation diversity had a negative correlation with elevation above sea level. In the western aspect, ground vegetation diversity had a positive correlation with CaCo3 while it had negative correlation with salinity and elevation above sea level. Results also showed that, in all the aspects, woody species only had a relationship with physical factors. These results suggest that in ecological studies for assessing the relationship between vegetation and environment, soil factors should be measured for the assessment of ground vegetation and, for woody species, physical and physiographic factors.

In order to study the relation between ground cover vegetation including shrubs and bushes, and natural regeneration of wild pistachio (Pistacia atlantica), a research project was carried out in 4 ha in a protected area in wild pistachio experimental Forest of Fars province. Statistical analysis using T-test showed that fencing of the area within studied 5 years had no significant impact on establishment of natural regeneration of wild pistachio. The regression between number of shrubs such as Amygdalus scoparia, A. lycioides and A. ebornea and the number of natural regeneration (seedlings) of wild pistachio was computed as y=5.8207x0.6499 (R2=0.755). Therefore, we can conclude that improvement of shrubs and bushes could be an effective alternative for rehabilitation of degraded wild pistachio Forests.

This research measured and analyzed Forest ground vegetation in permanent plots of typical and exclosure areas in the Zagros provinces, providing the possibility for long-term monitoring of quantitative and qualitative changes in vegetation. In total, 30 one-hectare square sample plots and 600 one-meter square microplots were studied along the Zagros, with floristic and environmental data related to tree and Forest floor measured and recorded. According to the results, 370 species were identified in the ground vegetation and 20 species of phanerophytes. The most abundant families in exclosure and typical sites were Asteraceae and Poaceae, respectively. Sixty-six percent of the ground vegetation population belonged to the Poaceae family, with the most populated genus being Bromus, comprising 25% of all plant individuals. The largest genus was Astragalus (with 18 species), and its population was about 2.5 times higher in exclosure sites than in typical sites. The average percentage of ground cover (51.2%) and litter cover (34.3%) in exclosure plots was significantly higher than in typical plots (37.6% for ground cover and 25.2% for litter cover). The number of phanerophyte species in the exclosure area was significantly greater than in the typical area, while the difference for other life forms was insignificant. The comparison of diversity indices for ground species in the exclosure and typical plots showed no significant difference between these two groups. In general, the relative protection implemented in some parts of the Zagros, although it did not affect ground species diversity indices, did affect ground vegetation cover, litter cover, species composition, and phanerophyte species.

Physiographic factors along with edaphic conditions play a crucial role in establishment of plant species throughout a region. Identification of the most effective factors is of high importance in sustainable management of a Forest ecosystem. This study aims to investigate the relationships between understory vegetation and some environmental factors in natural Forest ecosystems. This study has been carried out among the Fagetum orientalis communities of Ramsar Region, located in the north of Iran. For this purpose, 105 releves were sampled by a randomizedsystematic method throughout the study area, using the Braun-Blanquet scale. Physiographic parameters such as elevation, as well as slope and orientation were measured. By identification of the herb-layer vegetation contained in each sampling, vegetation composition and cover abundance of species were separately identified. Then, the aforementioned properties of soil were entirely measured in the taken samples. Cluster analysis and detrended correspondence analysis have been applied to classify the site. Moreover, in order to determine the relation between species composition and environmental factors, canonical correspondence analysis was used. Results showed a significant relation between distribution of plant types and environmental factors. Eventually, environmental factors including slope, orientation, silt percent, pH, organic matter and soluble phosphorous were among the most effective factors in establishment of Hedera pastuchowii, Solanum kieseritzkii, Oplismenus undulatifolius, Sedum stoloniferum, Rubus hyrcanus and Saxifraga cymbalaria species.

The objective of this research was to classify Darkola oriental beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) plant communities in Pol-sefid in Mazadaran Province on the basis of the above ground vegetation and soil seed bank floristic dataset. We also tested whether above ground plant communities can be recognized by a soil seed band dataset. For this purpose 52 releves with an area 400 m2 were made at the peak of the growing season during June 2006 by a systematic-selective method and by consideration of the indicator stands concept. vegetation data were recorded separately for each life form. In each releve, soil samples were also collected using 20 cm × 20 cm square metal frame in six repetitions at the beginning of the 2007 growth season. The metal frame was hammered into the soil to a depth 10 cm. this study used the seeding emergence approach to recognize the size and richness of species composition in the seed bank. By using two way indicator species analysis, TWINSPAN, four plant communities were separately recognized in two series above ground plant communities and underground (soil seed bank) plant communities based on the relative density of total plant species indentified in the soil seed bank and the percentage cover of each species in above ground vegetation dataset matrices surveyed, respectively. Above ground and underground plant communities, fitness was estimated at 68% based on similar membership of releves in each plant community, when they were, separately classified from the soil seed bank and above ground vegetation points of view. Results of discriminant analysis and detrended analysis revealed that classification of plant communities on the basis of the above ground vegetation dataset led to forming distinguishable and separate groups whereas the soil seed bank dataset, since it was generally composed of pioneer plant species, could not display distinct plant, communities. As a result, we concluded that soil seed bank floristic data were not suitable for plant community classification even though they were related to some physiographical properties. The results of indicator species analysis (IV) approved that there are four groups of indicator plants which characterized Darkola oriental beech Forest into four distanced above ground plant communities including: Fagus orientalis with Danae racemosa understory type, Fagus orientalis- Acer velutinum types, Fagus orientalis with Mercurialis perennis understory and Fagus orientalis with Vaccinium arctostaphylos understory.

This study is aimed to access the impact of land use change (from Forest areas to Forest parks) on vegetation and soil inParisan's park (Ilam Provience). For this purpose, three zones including non-recreation, extensive recreation and intensive recreation were chosen. In each area 20 sample plots in a systematic random design (100 m´150 m) were established. Herbaceous species type and their coverage were recorded using 4 microplots (1.5 m2) within each sample plot. In each plot, three soil samples were taken from 0-30 cm depth and a mixed sample was transferred to soil laboratory. Cluster Analysis and Detrended Correspondence Analysis were used for better understanding of the vegetation structure, to avoid subjective classification and to indicate the major gradient of variation within the vegetation structure of three areas. Canonical Correspondence analysis was applied to determine important soil variables of three areas. Results showed that the vegetation in intensive recreation area was completely different from non- and extensive recreation areas and was classified as distinctive group. Total nitrogen, organic carbon, phosphorus and exchangeable potassium and litter depth were decreased in the intensive recreation area, but pH and bulk density were increased.

This study focused on vegetation classification of Darabkola Forest in the middle part of Hyrcanian Forests in north of Iran. For this purpose, 139 releves were sampled using systematic-selective method in 400 m grid dimensions by the consideration of indicator stands concept. Based on modified TWINSPAN method and Braun-Blanquet phytosociological method, five associations (Parrotio persicae-Carpinetum betuli, Zelkovo carpinifoliae-Quercetum, Solano kieseritzkii-Fagetum orientalis, Aceri velutini-Parrotietum persicae and Euphorbio amygdaloidae-Fagetum orientale) and four sub-associations (Zelkovo carpinifoliae-Quercetum castaneifoliae subasso a typical subasso Quercetosum, Zelkovo carpinifoliae-Quercetum castaneifoliae subasso Fagetosum orientale, Aceri velutini-Parrotietum persicae subasso Carpinetusum betuli and Aceri velutini-Parrotietum persicae subasso Pteroetosum fraxinifoliae) were distinguished. Demonstration of plant communities along the first two axes of detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) showed that these associations had almost distinct pattern. Also, results of multiple regression of topographic factors with the two first ordination axes of DCA indicated that elevation was the most important topographic factor in distribution of the associations in the Darabkola Forests. In addition, the results of this study can lead to the more efficient management and better protection of Darbakla Forest.